Ciguatera poisoning is caused by eating seafood that has been contaminated by algae-derived toxins. Ciguatera toxins are only present in fish, particularly large reef fish in the tropics. By contrast, paralytic shellfish poisoning and diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning is caused by shellfish contaminated with microorganisms (i.e. algae producing toxins), in particular mussels and oysters. These toxins or poisons interfere with the function of nerve endings. Symptoms occur within 2 to 3 hours of eating contaminated food, and consist of tingling of the lips, tongue and throat, often followed by stomach upset, headache, fever, muscle aches and pains and in the case of ciguatera poisoning, sometimes changes in blood pressure and heart rhythm. Numbness, collapse, coma and confusion have also been described. Most people recover within a few days or weeks with supportive treatment.
HOT The Human Eye Structure And Function Oyster Pdf 12
As an ecosystem engineer, oysters provide supporting ecosystem services, along with provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Oysters influence nutrient cycling, water filtration, habitat structure, biodiversity, and food web dynamics.[27] Assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus into shellfish tissues provides an opportunity to remove these nutrients from the water column.[28][29][30] In California's Tomales Bay, native oyster presence is associated with higher species diversity of benthic invertebrates.[31][32] The ecological and economic importance of oyster reefs has become more acknowledged, restoration efforts have increased.[15]
The "oyster-tecture" movement promotes the use of oyster reefs for water purification and wave attenuation. An oyster-tecture project has been implemented at Withers Estuary, Withers Swash, South Carolina, by Neil Chambers-led volunteers, at a site where pollution was affecting beach tourism.[45] Currently, for the installation cost of $3000, roughly 4.8 million liters of water are being filtered daily. In New Jersey, however, the Department of Environmental Protection refused to allow oysters as a filtering system in Sandy Hook Bay and the Raritan Bay, citing worries that commercial shellfish growers would be at risk and that members of the public might disregard warnings and consume tainted oysters. New Jersey Baykeepers responded by changing their strategy for utilizing oysters to clean up the waterway, by collaborating with Naval Weapons Station Earle. The Navy station is under 24/7 security and therefore eliminates any poaching and associated human health risk.[46] Oyster-tecture projects have been proposed to protect coastal cities, such as New York, from the threat of rising sea levels due to climate change.[47] Additionally Oyster reef restoration has shown to increase the population of oyster beds within the oceans while also conservating the biolife within the oyster reefs.
The accidental or intentional introduction of species by humans has the potential to negatively impact native oyster populations. For example, non-native species in Tomales Bay have resulted in the loss of half of California's Olympia oysters.[48]
Oyster depuration begins after the harvest of oysters from farmed locations. The oysters are transported and placed into tanks pumped with clean water for periods of 48 to 72 hours. The holding temperatures and salinity vary according to species. The seawater that the oysters were originally farmed in does not remain in the oyster, since the water used for depuration must be fully sterilized, plus the depuration facility would not necessarily be located near the farming location.[69] Depuration of oysters can remove moderate levels of contamination of most bacterial indicators and pathogens. Well-known contaminants include Vibrio parahaemolyticus, a temperature-sensitive bacterium found in seawater animals, and Escherichia coli, a bacterium found in coastal waters near highly populated cities having sewage systems discharging waste nearby, or in the presence of agricultural discharges.[citation needed] Depuration expands beyond oysters into many shellfish and other related products, especially in seafood that is known to come from potentially polluted areas; depurated seafood is effectively a product cleansed from inside-out to make it safe for human consumption.
Some oysters also harbor bacterial species which can cause human disease; of importance is Vibrio vulnificus, which causes gastroenteritis, which is usually self-limiting, and cellulitis. Cellulitis can be severe and rapidly spreading, requiring antibiotics, medical care, and in some severe cases amputation. It is usually acquired when the contents of the oyster come in contact with a cut skin lesion, as when shucking an oyster.
There is a clear, yet rapidly closing, window of opportunity for meaningful global action on climate adaptation, mitigation, and resiliency in order to secure a livable future. Cities and settlements will play a highly significant role in how this window of opportunity is leveraged. Cities have become early responders to climate change because they are responsible for up to 70% of human-caused emissions and their neighborhoods and critical infrastructure systems are often highly vulnerable. They currently host 55% of the global population, some 4.2 billion people, and the number of urban dwellers is projected to increase to 68% by 2050 (United Nations, 2019). Therefore, now is the time to integrate adaptation and mitigation, coupled with sustainable development, into the ever-dynamic urban environment. 2ff7e9595c
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